During the Enlightenment, social and scientific thinking began to change. Enlightenment thinkers pushed for social change through the separation of church and state and the establishment of constitutional government.

They also challenged religious or superstitious dogma by promoting rationalism as the only source of legitimacy. In the field of science, they emphasised the scientific method and reductionism: breaking complex occurrences or entities into their simplest components.

The study of the natural world flourished during this time. Scientists approached the study of animals, places and people in a logical and rational manner, leaving behind the religious and esoteric theories of previous centuries.

Linnaeus was hugely influential in the natural sciences. He has been called the ‘father of modern taxonomy’ and ‘the prince of botany’ and is considered to be one of the founders of modern ecology.

Linnaeus’ legacy lives on through the Linnaean Society, founded in 1788, 10 years after his death. The Society is dedicated to the study of natural history, evolution and taxonomy. It awards a range of prestigious prizes for outstanding achievements in these fields.

A product of the 18th century scientific Enlightenment, the Society was the location for the first public presentation of the Theory of Evolution. Many influential and famous people have been listed among its fellows. These include Charles Darwin, Joseph Banks, Daniel Solander, Sir David Attenborough, Emperor Akihito of Japan and King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden.

Solander applied Linnaeus’ classification system when documenting the specimens collected on his voyage with Cook. Not long after their return to England, Banks and Solander began planning more exploratory ventures to collect new species. Linnaeus was apprehensive; he believed they should finish cataloguing the specimens from the first voyage before bringing more home. In total, Solander and Banks collected 30,300 plant samples, including 1,400 species previously unknown to Western scientists.

Solander died at the age of 49 in 1782. Although he was an eminent botanist and scientist, he published few works. He kept no diaries during his voyages and none of the papers he wrote about the voyages were published in his lifetime. However, Solander did contribute to Joseph Banks’ Florilegium, a book of over 743 botanical engravings made from watercolours by Endeavour artist Sidney Parkinson, collecting and classifying many of the specimens.

Banks joined the Endeavour in 1768 for Captain Cook’s South Sea expedition. Banks saw the scientific potential of the voyage. He invited 8 scientists and artists to join him, among them Daniel Solander. As well as plants, Banks and Solander collected reptiles, fish, shellfish and insects at each location on the journey. Banks was also interested in the customs and cultural practices of the indigenous peoples of the lands they visited. He kept detailed descriptions of the people they met in his diaries.

Banks was elected president of the Royal Society in 1778, a position he held for the next 41 years. The Royal Society was founded in 1660 and still exists today. The Society has a variety of roles: it promotes science, recognises excellence in scientific research, and provides scientific advice to government and policymakers.

The Royal Society was a driving force behind many of the voyages of discovery in the 18th and 19th centuries, actively promoting new ideas. Its motto is Nullius in verba, which means ‘Take nobody’s word for it’. The motto reflects the Society’s determination, rooted in Enlightenment thinking, to establish facts and knowledge through experiences and exploration, rather than simply accepting pre-existing understandings.

As president, Banks sent expeditions to many parts of the world to bring back plant, animal and mineral specimens. In his later years, Banks was considered the authority on all things Australian, including the plants and people. He corresponded regularly with the first three governors of Australia and was influential in many major settlement and planning decisions.

Learning activities

1. What are the advantages to having a formalised classification system for plants and animals? What are the drawbacks? Critique the current system and suggest improvements.
2. Between them, Banks and Solander catalogued over 30,000 new plant species. This increased the number of species known to Western science by 10%.
   1. Is it possible that there are still such quantities of plant and/or animal species left on the planet to document? Is it likely that we can reach ‘peak discovery’ (a point where we have discovered all there is to know)? Have we already reached it? As a class, choose a standpoint, conduct further research and stage a debate.
3. Australia abounds with trees, shrubs and flowers found nowhere else on Earth.
   1. Document the different species of plants found in your school, neighbourhood or community.
   2. Work out which are native to Australia and which have been introduced.
   3. Which species are endemic to your region? Which are from other areas of Australia or abroad?
   4. Compile a florilegium with the results.