Painting was viewed as a respectable pursuit, and manuals on the subject became popular during the late Ming dynasty. Some were printed in multiple colours, using different woodblocks for each one. This interest continued into the early Qing dynasty with the publication of Painting Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden. Covering the general principles of landscape painting and the preparation of colours, it became one of the most renowned painting manuals in East Asia.

The first part, by Wang Gai and printed in five colours in 1678, discusses the painting of trees, hills and stones, people and buildings. It also includes examples by renowned masters. Two later parts, printed in 1701 by Wang and his two brothers, focus on the painting of plants, flowers, birds and insects.

Portraits from the Hall of Late Blossoming contains 120 illustrations of men and women from Chinese history by artist Shanguan Zhou. While little is known about his life, paintings attributed to him can be found in galleries around the world. Each portrait is accompanied by a short biography.

The first image reproduced above shows Su Wu of the Han dynasty, an imperial envoy later exiled as a goat herder. The second image is of Tang dynasty poet Meng Haoran.

During the Qing dynasty, scholars began to re-examine China’s cultural heritage by returning to original sources. This included studying inscriptions on bronze vessels and mirrors from earlier eras. These inscriptions often recorded the reason for the object’s production—such as to mark a victory or reward good service—and were considered links to the past in a culture that valued the written word.

Because the original objects were heavy and not easily shared, rubbings were taken from their surfaces. These preserved both the texture and form of the object and allowed scholars to study the inscriptions closely. A rubbing mounted on paper or silk could also include a collector’s notes.

It became accepted that rubbings were more accurate than hand copies. Skilled artisans were required to produce high-quality work.

A new technique called composite rubbing emerged in the late Qing era. This method aimed to capture the three-dimensional nature of a vessel on a two-dimensional surface. It involved:

• taking many measurements
• using numerous stencils
• shifting rubbing paper up to 200 times
• manipulating paper and ink to reproduce depth and perspective

This was a highly creative process, with different artists able to produce distinct rubbings of the same object.