The Opium Wars

By the early 1800s, British merchants had discovered a product they could market in China: opium. Huge volumes were shipped from British-controlled India, and by the 1830s, a tenth of Britain’s revenue in India came from the opium trade. This had devastating social and financial effects in China.

In 1839, the Qing court sent Commissioner Lin Zexu (1785–1850) to Canton to end the trade. After Western merchants ignored his pleas, Lin seized their opium—sparking the First Opium War.

Britain defeated China and forced the Qing to sign the Treaty of Nanjing in 1842. This unequal treaty required China to open five ports to foreign trade, pay a large indemnity, and cede Hong Kong to Britain. At the time, British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston famously dismissed Hong Kong as “a barren island with hardly a house upon it”.

A Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, broke out in 1856 over similar trade and diplomatic issues. The war ended with the Treaty of Tianjin (1858), which expanded foreign access:

• More ports were opened
• Foreign diplomats were allowed in Beijing
• Missionaries could operate freely
• The opium trade was legalised

When the Qing court resisted ratifying the treaty and foreign diplomats were killed, Britain and France marched on Beijing in 1860. They issued an ultimatum for surrender and, when demands weren’t met, looted and burned the Qing imperial gardens. The court eventually capitulated. On 24 October, British forces led by Lord Elgin marched through Beijing. French troops followed the next day.

Treaty ports and foreign presence

After the Second Opium War, the treaty port system expanded. Cities such as Hankou (now part of Wuhan) were opened to foreign trade. Located nearly 1,000 kilometres inland along the Yangzi River, Hankou became a major port in 1861. Foreign settlements sprang up in these cities, bringing unprecedented contact between Chinese communities and Western traders, missionaries and diplomats.

A woodblock-printed map of Wuhan from 1875 shows Hankou and its foreign concessions along the river, with Chinese and foreign ships sharing the busy waters. Across the river from Hankou sits the walled city of Wuchang, home to the iconic Yellow Crane Tower.

By 1911, there were more than 50 treaty ports across China. These ports gave foreign powers significant influence over Chinese trade and territory—often through extraterritorial rights that exempted foreigners from Chinese law.

The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864)

While foreign pressure mounted, China also faced major internal challenges. The most significant was the Taiping Rebellion, one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. Over 20 million people died and 600 cities were destroyed.

The rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan, a man who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ. He founded the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace and captured Nanjing in 1853, transforming it into his capital. Taiping leaders used printed proclamations and banners to spread their message and reassure the public of their intentions.

The Qing dynasty eventually crushed the rebellion with the help of the Ever Victorious Army, a Qing-aligned force trained and led by European officers. The conflict had profound social, military and political effects on Qing China.

The Boxer Rebellion (1898–1901)

The Boxer Rebellion was a grassroots, anti-foreign movement that began in Shandong province. The Boxers—known in English as the “Fists of Righteous Harmony”—sought to preserve the Qing dynasty while expelling foreign influence, especially Christian missionaries.

Supported by many at court, including Empress Dowager Cixi, the Boxers laid siege to foreign legations in Beijing. A multinational force of 20,000 troops eventually broke the siege after two months. The city was looted, and the Qing court fled. China was forced to pay a massive indemnity, and thousands of Chinese Christians were killed during the violence. 

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